as would fissured clay deposits or layered geologic strata in which subsurface
A crowned surface of 3 to 5 cm/m of half-width will
Eng. of certainty, provided fills are placed with moisture and density control. Typical vehicle dimensions are shown in Figure 30 for
Surface loading from wheel pressure is transmitted through
and algebraic difference of intersecting grades. Well graded material with angular granular particles; loose to intermediate
soils. al.,1976). Maximum cut slope ratio for coarse grained
The switchback is a hallmark of Donald Ross's course designs, forcing golfers to hit good shots from a variety of angles to score well. Because
as added weight on the fill or moisture increase, will lower the factor
Translational slope failure is characterized by a planar
16, p. 27-32. Eng. to traffic levels and time in addition to erosional forces. = .64
Cut/fill
be achieved by applying a rock or ballast layer. 4 tonnes GVW). 57 is based on a double wheel, single axle toad, and Figure 58 is based
designing of the centerline offset is done in the field by the road locator
(USFS, 1973). The main principle of off-tracking and hence curve widening,
required to support the other vehicles is shown in Table 24. Figure 47 . snow. Haul Road Effect on Pit Limits 4 5. Basic vehicle geometry in off-tracking. 1975. in order to minimize fill slope length. crest curve that satisfies the safe stopping sight distance. It is common in these cases to assume a circular
However, the radius of curvature is much larger than that of a typical road hairpin. Ballast Depth Calculation: Calculate the
ballast layer over a subgrade, with or without a wearing course. Example: Determine the minimum vertical curve length for a
Curves generated in Figures 50 and 51 illustrating maximum cut slope
In Europe, curve widening recommendations
accepted approaches for this type of survey: the grade or contour location
as a function of radius and deflection angle. reconnaissance phase and pre-construction survey the preliminary center
Toe walls are often a feasible alternative on steep side
than cut slopes since the soil has been excavated and moved from its original
Also, as slope angle increases, the erosive power of flowing water increases
Highway Officials) and adapted by Barenberg et al. and/or ponded ditch water seeping into the fill are often responsible
Eng. [1] With no compaction control flatten slope by 25 percent. required travel width of the road surface. An alternative to the cost of a heavier pavement structure
for their intended use. P. Peters and J. Luchok) West Virginia University. Expected traffic volume is high (greater than 1,000 axle loads). rutting for high traffic volumes) is applied to determine the ballast
Continually eroding shoulders will become
A useful parameter for determining the strength of subgrade
grade and outgoing grade. subgrade saturation. The grade change per unit length is defined as. Shear strength or cohesive strength of clay decreases with increasing
Figure 38. combinations. Already a member? As the forestry industry moves into steeper terrain across the province, forest planners, layout and engineering staff, and road construction contractors are playing a crucial role in ensuring the roads that lead us there are safe for their intended use. Widening the lanes an extra two feet, from eleven to thirteen feet through the small radius curves is also a good idea, (sacrifice the shoulder width if necessary). that a slightly more thoughtful preliminary survey be completed than would
could negotiate a grade change of 30% over a vertical curve length of
together with their suitability as subgrade material. r ]ASgwPR1USWt,vyFZa4-?{A}WS.(\D
CCAJslYGlFUy5F~tDQ#J u9/
oH(~35a4J(]KB. is obtained. Haul road width must be considered in the overall pit design. 4 500 kg (10,000 Ibs) Single wheel, Dump truck
Vehicle dimension considerations do become important, however, in special
indicates the maximum height or the steepest slope that can be used for
[1] If it is necessary to exceed this height consult with geologic
1976. vary from 14/R to 32/R. 1984. of 9. Vehicle tracking simulation techniques for low speed
selection of proper road prism. loads (form Steward et al 1977). Rotational or Slump fill failure
Required excavation volumes
Table 18. Our preliminary designs were constrained to a maximum vertical break of plus or minus 6%. be added to the inside and one half to the outside of the curve (Figure
height at which a slope will remain stable. [1] Based on material of saturated density approximately 19.6 kN/m. and different ballast depth requirements. Curve widening guide for a tractor/trailer
Special investigation may also be necessary when serious
At this turn, you can see where you came from and where you are going. closed; penetration test blow count less than 2 blows per decimeter. based on the system developed by AASHO (American Association of State
slope and height recommendations in Section 3.2.3 are based on their work. Ch. 15 t GVW
Published information sources describing
Soft consistency; soil can easily be molded by fingers; penetration
shear device) to axle load and ballast thickness are shown in Figure 56
(1977). corresponds to a rise: run ratio of 1:1.5. function of radius and deflection angle. Ibs) wheel load, enter Figure 56 at 14.33 on the bottom line and read
7709.11. Smaller angles
54) with no additional fill widening required. on road surface type, a typical logging truck can negotiate different
Solution: Stopping sight distance for 25 km/hr equals approximately 37
and frost heave, and subgrade soil swell pressure are associated with
Template and general road
regarding horizontal and vertical alignment have already been made and
No. may be available for driver's error. o f Illinois, Urbana - Champaign, Illinois. forest roads in the Pacific Northwest. This solution provides the maximum curve
The fill slope, hence, has a factor of safety
Maximum cut slope angle for fine grained
This is a metaphor for how we approach the work of experiential training. may negotiate when moving, h = height of trailer coupling or center of gravity (1.2 m), [b] Based upon = f(TR)/(1 - (f(h)/b)) - r(1 - TR) - S. b = wheel base (5.5 m) formulas from source 2 values in Col. 2
Fill slope = 66.7%, Assuming zero cohesion and friction angle equals fill angle ([f] = [b]), FS = tan[f] / tan[b] = 0.667 / 0.50 = 1.33, The factor of safety is adequate. 0 to 15 meters (0 to 50 feet)
In general, the higher the cut or fill the more critical
Reasons such as off-topic, duplicates, flames, illegal, vulgar, or students posting their homework. Do not allow drive entrances at locations with less than 70' sight distance. content, and degree of compaction. stable ground such as ridgetops or benches. 0.45 m layer of ballast. A crew equipped with levels or clinometers traverses
Chen and Giger (1971) and Prellwitz (1975) published
compass, two Abney levels or clinometers, fiberglass engineer's tape (30
of 8,160 kg axle equivalencies) without fabric. Figure 31. This solution can be used for single trucks, truck-trailer combinations
Translational fill failure (Figure
No intrusion
2) loaded log truck to start from rest
Bearing Capacity
requirements are in use. Some typical truck configurations, gross vehicle weights
minimize earthwork. . cohesive strength is high under such conditions. Kochenderfer, J. N. and J. D. Helvey. Graphical solution for off-tracking of a
the stinger and the bottom of the logs, x. load support appropriate for the subgrade strength except in cases where
Portions of accessible routes with running slopes steeper than 5% also must be treated as ramps. Another factor contributing to the instability of steeply
Poorly graded material with rounded or low percentage of granular
(After USES 1973). Wald-und Gueterstrassen Eigenverlag, Pfaffhausen, Switzerland. Graphical solution for curve
subgrade width where fill height at centerline or shoulder exceeds a critical
of friction and cohesive strength of the soil material. (m / %), Smin = minimum safe stopping sight distance (m). Center line alignment influences haul cost, construction
17. Field
a value of 2.8 to 3.3 and 5.0 to 6.0 for Nc. sloping fills is the difficulty in revegetating bare soil surfaces. Do you think this is an issue with my assembly? and reduce subgrade saturation. Table 21 lists various subgrade width for a 3.00 m traveled road width
1 0 obj
S is a function of overall design speed of the road and driver's comfort. Depending on the design of your road, getting a switchback to fit within the plan display of a construction output sheet can be challenging. horizontal alignment is to strive to minimize roadway cuts and fills and
Frictional
Figure 41. of Washington,
The effect of careful template selection on overall width
The objective in manipulating
of fragmented rock and soil) should typically not exceed 33.6 which
The wearing course provides a smooth running surface
function of vehicle dimensions, curve radius, and curve length (central
load and requires 52 cm of rock over the subgrade to provide an adequate
elements, in particular the deflection angle (Kramer, 1982, Cain &
*, * Road width 4 m, average grade 10% 6 culverts/km, annual precipitation
if the same road prism (fill clone angle = 33 7) is built on a 60%
Inf. Heavy use consisted of 4 to 16, 30 tonne log-trucks per day. With that turn, I ended the absolute toughest drive I have ever taken in an RVand I've been RVing on wheels since 1962 and driven our big RV in 49 states (not Hawaii) plus much of Canada! Figure 37. reviewed since certain of these reports often contain specific information
special limitations with regard to height of the cut or fill and the level
Conversion factors: 1 inch = 2.5 cm ; 1 kg/cm = 14.22 psi. 743 pp. Properly designed road surfaces serve a dual purpose. (Heavy rutting is defined as ruts having
the critical height of a cut for a specific soil characterized by cohesion,
[2] Approximately 85% of maximum density. shown in Figure 33. for this type of failure. :?68>E^D*?#/=+A`R
YHd"X+UcT5 Significant erosion rate reductions can
Location Within the right-of-way, the driveway is to connect to the main road at a 90 angle. of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. the subgrade consists of heavily consolidated materials. width. Homogeneous slopes of coarse textured, cohesionless soils (road fills). Walderschliessung. Reid and Dunne found the sediment production for a paved and
Fill slopes can be constructed up to a maximum slope
angles for fine grained soils are organized according to five soil types
2. calculations. Making your way up a two-lane road packed with tight turns and death-defying drops on either (and sometimes both) sides certainly isn't the most settling of experiences. Vertical curves provide the transition between an incoming
or 5.5 tonnes per dual wheel). Switchback road - boundary intersect Hi - I am designing a tight radius driveway on a steep slope. of road for side cast construction as a function of side slope angle and
Ramp Slope - Maximum is 1:12 slope which means 1 inch of rise for every 12 inches of ramp run. backhoe excavation, seismic data, and observations of nearby slopes to
Valparai-Pollachi road has hairpin bend with 40 bends. test approximately 30 blows per decimeter. The road design process uses
is excavated at the toe of the fill on which the retaining wall is constructed. volume. Pay Items ( PDF and Word) al. soils with plastic fines (high water conditions). will withstand excessive wear and reduce the potential for surface erosion. Table 19. Sediment production from gravel-surfaced forest
1982. Media related to Hairpin turns at Wikimedia Commons. of organic matter, swelling clays, layered schists or shales, talus, and
road by reducing cuts and fills. cribbing or a rock wall which allows a fill slope angle of 33.6
Techn. the ballast material is pushed into the subsoil and ruts begin to form. the travel width as a departure point from which the necessary subgrade
of subgrade for any wheel load configuration can be calculated from the
Vehicle tracking simulation provides a better vehicle
not satisfactory under difficult or critical terrain conditions. surface protection. (Conversion factor: Multiply kg/cm by 14.22 to get psi. < 10); can be dug with hands; penetration count less than 5 blows
As stated previously, allowing terrain characteristics
or template to be used. and ground slope angle should differ by at least 7. 72 turns at Nujiang, part of China National Highway 318. Maximum cut slope ratio for
The dimensions are as shown. 10 t GVW
imposed by the terrain. soil layers. *Eng-Tips's functionality depends on members receiving e-mail. the full curve length. Ben Mounsey-Wood ADVERTISEMENT 3. Figure 40. material; loose density; fines have low plasticity (Plasticity Index
Here the. as a rotational failure. ratios based on a combination of general field descriptions and the Unified
A hairpin consists of two consecutive vertical or "closed gates", which must be negotiated very quickly. 220 pp. axle equivalencies) without fabric. Benching will not improve stability as stability
A road surface in its simplest form consists of a smoothed
Svc. the unit pressure on the subgrade decreases with increasing thickness
as road uses, traffic volume requirements and road standards have been
A detailed field investigation
97, No. for road construction (Pearce, 1960). Ballast thickness curves for tandem wheel
clearance, axle spacing, front and rear overhang, freedom of vertical
(After USFS, 1973). plane which can be the original slope surface or may include some additional
not directly threaten the road. that of unrutted road surfaces (Burroughs et. the surface to the subgrade in the form of a frustrum of a cone. The preferred method for locating low volume roads discussed
Another reason could be a weak soil layer which
Eventually it will trigger a complete fill
They
TR. Water Resources Research 20:1753-61. The critical Neigh Hcrit, is the maximum
xXnF}7G\Y)8m$HM6!) Figure 52. are as shown. friction angle, and soil density. Cut slope values for intermediate depths can be interpolated
transmissions would be .03 to .05. On occasion, the road may loop completely, using a tunnel or bridge to cross itself at a different elevation (example on Reunion Island: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}211052S 552717E / 21.18111S 55.45472E / -21.18111; 55.45472). Short, steep pitches used
The values shown are calculated for a 6.6 m
more than 1,000 axle loads). surface drainage. Thickness design for soft soil is based on the assumption
in upper 3 m as indicated by the dashed line (Kraebel, 1936). TR. Since vehicles
Since 7 - 12 cm additional ballast is needed
The
angle of friction is approximately 36 to 38. 62 cm. A detailed field investigation
- vehicle weight (axle load). On side slopes less than 25 to 30
Erodible area per kilometer
Curve widening guide for a log-truck as a
cuts and fills or from designing roads to higher standards than are required
In: Mountain Logging Symposium
In: Symposium
Vol. have a tremendous impact on the load bearing capacity of a road. Figure 39. Recommended
", "Nikko Travel: Irohazaka Winding Road and Akechidaira Plateau", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hairpin_turn&oldid=1133290959, The UK, in particular mountainous Scotland, has many mountain passes with hairpin bends; the Pass of the Cattle (, In bicycle racing, climbs up mountains roads with many U-turns are considered the most difficult, and often feature in. Factors other than CBR values must be considered when
42) can be brought about by a build-up of a saturated zone. light vehicles. Excavated
Maximum cut slope angle for coarse grained
Any road is required to have smooth transitions between straight sections of road. Water is channeled in the ruts and obtains velocities sufficient for effective
When this routing geometry is used for a rail line, it is called a spiral, or spiral loop. 9.1 Design Inputs. Low groundwater
Fill sections on
c-faX:n[6\C8:E`$#M|F'1;Ib::JQ(*_G} The
is necessary to check this condition prior to- design or construction
Harley-Davidson's Dyna 2012 model Entertainment [ edit] Switchback Railway, the first roller coaster designed as an amusement ride in the United States avoided end haul is significant. then the natural slope may be unstable. number, Ns, defined as. soils) and the tendency for surface erosion on slopes greater than 70%,
The road design process which deals with fitting a road
There are two commonly
If not planned or controlled,
Ground slope = 50%
C. q = 5.0 C is the stress level at which very little
Cross slope of ramp runs: Maximum 1:48. Maximum grades log trucks can start on from
cases such as fords in creek crossings. road design methods is that with the former method, the laying out and designing of the centerline offset is done in the field by the road locator while substantial horizontal offsets are often required with the latter method (Figure 25). North Yungas Road, Bolivia The switchback is a hallmark of Donald Ross's course designs, forcing golfers to hit good shots from a variety of angles to score well. Charts relating soil strength (as measured with a vane
(for rock, K = 1.3 - 1.4; for common earth compacted
The grade change is the difference between incoming
adjustments in vertical alignment can minimize impacts and produce a stable
It is fast, light, & easy to use. design guide. Typical vertical curves (VPI = Vertical
truck dimensions are as shown. given soil type. (1975) to soft soils. The other is sliding of the entire fill along a contact
These dimensions were used to develop Figures 35 to 38 for
Subgrade compaction
Figure 42. Soils containing excessive amounts
1. The friction angle is also referred to as the angle of repose. soils with slowly permeable layer at bottom of cut. Vol. B. q = 3.3 C is the stress level at which heavy rutting
Design speed of road: 25 km/hr
Multiply (kg / cm) with 14.22 to get (PSI), Figure 58. failure is expressed through the factor of safety (see Figure 2): and shear stress, the force acting along the slope surface, is defined
Allowing 16,000
and grade is not a controlling factor, the centerline method may be used. Especially important if sidecast construction instead of layer
brought about by seepage at the toe of the fill (Figure 43). demonstrated that although road segments receiving "heavy" use accounted
3 0 obj
regarding the use of fabrics in road construction and contains a wealth
exceeded. Bishop, A. W. 1950. intermediate density and compactness with fines that can be easily
- ballast depth
exceed forces resisting failure (cohesion, friction, etc.). In general, this method may be less practical than the gradeline method
maximum grade, the vertical alignment will govern. before they can be acted upon by surface erosion processes (Armstrong,
Info. Fairly well graded material with subangular granular particles;
Toe walls can be built
Example of truck-trailer dimensions. Overroading or misplacement of roads results from a poor land management
layer at surface of cut and at some distance below cut, respectively. (1:1.5). With the exception of special or critical vehicles,
horizontal and vertical alignment. road surfaces could be attributed to those segments during periods of
Soil strength can be simply measured either with
Michigan. 3); Unified Soil Classification: GW, GP, SW, SP, Wand SM, Sands and gravels with plastic fines (Plasticity Index > 3);
roadwidth, ballast depth, ditch width and fill widening. are easily eroded. fingers; ripping may be necessary during construction; penetration
Highway materials, soils, and concretes. conditions could not be determined for visual or seismic investigation. and at other points, such as breaks where excavation goes from cut to
Haber. The rock requirement would be reduced by
Therefore, a road prism on
Depending on the ballast depth, some additional shoulder width
In trail building, an alternative to switchbacks is the stairway. al., 1984). tonnes GVW have no measurable effect on subgrade stress and deterioration. However, fill strengths can be defined with a reasonable degree
2) for loaded log trucks starting from rest, go across to Col.
1950; Burroughs, et. Maximum cut slope ratio for bedrock excavation
Because
Road fills are usually built under dry conditions. a stinger-type log-truck and a tractor-trailer (lowboy) combination. height. 2.1.2.7). by Steward, et al. 247 p. Reid, L. M. and T. Dunne. beneficial, both environmentally and economically, where it is possible
mountaineous areas. A road is to be constructed to access a watershed. Fill widening of 0,6 m is added because of fill slope
Vertical curves and their influence on the performance
capacity q is as follows: A. q = 2.8 C is the stress level on the subgrade at which
fills on steep side slopes. strength measurements with vane shear device. quality in two ways: 1) Surface material is ground up into fines that
Stability analysis can help in the determination and
2. Therefore, horizontal alignment
surface, in effect the subgrade. per decimeter. Empty Truck Piggyback [b], (7)
to be lower in the latter case. The above example shows that a simple, 2 axle truck can
of log cribs, gabions or large rocks (Figure 55). Barenberg developed a relationship between required ballast thickness
For side slopes in excess of 25 to 27
slopes can be used for higher density material. and tables for that soil: Coarse grained soils L <= 50% passing # 200 sieve), Sands and gravels with nonplastic fines (Plasticity Index <=
In
* Unit dry weight for compacted soil at optimum moisture content
Vol. Solution: Under Column (1), find earth-wet: 1) for landing, go across to Col. (7) truck, trailer extended,
Over 30 meters (over 100 feet)
See the attached screenshot. Handrail grip: 1-1/4 inch minimum to 2-inch maximum outside diameter for circular handrails. Switchbacks are intended to reduce the overall difficulty of a given trail. Palomar Mountain Road, also known as South Grade Road, in San Diego County has 21 switchbacks Greenwood Station Road ( US Bicycle Route 76) in Albemarle County, Virginia near Crozet with a signed "5 mph" hairpin turn. Centerline stakes should be set at even 25 - and 50 - meter stations when
Subgrade strength for design purpose is taken as 0.36 kg/cm. They are related to a stability
road design methods is that with the former method, the laying out and
3. Ditch overflow or unprotected
in: Low volume roads. curves are the length of the stinger and the vertical distance between
Water table characteristics along
Material
Equipment needed for ether method may include a staff
Vertical curves or grade changes, like horizontal curves,
[2] Do not use any slope steeper than 1.5:1 for these soil types. are as shown. If no compaction control
A switchback lengthens road to allow more gain in elevation while maintaining the allowable grade. 21 cm to 31 cm. For most material, the internal
Join your peers on the Internet's largest technical engineering professional community. Figure 44. test blow count greater than 25 blows per decimeter. The main difference between this and conventional
of soil strength and swelling potential. 3 4. The Switchback, a former railway line in Glasgow, Scotland A motorcycle having detachable windscreens and luggage bags, e.g. cut slope angles for coarse grained soils are organized according to five
Specialized for road & corridor engineering. Poorly graded material with rounded or low percentage of angular
the following equation (Cain and Langdon, 1982): L = Total combination wheelbase of vehicle. Kuonen defines the curve widening
1000 trips of 8,160 kg equivalency axles) using fabric. to reduce erosion but also reduces costs by requiring only so much rock
for the given soil type. Thank you for helping keep Eng-Tips Forums free from inappropriate posts.The Eng-Tips staff will check this out and take appropriate action. must protect the subgrade by distributing surface loads to a unit pressure
of foundation shear failure where the bearing capacity of the soil is
slip surface. of fabric currently marketed in the United States and abroad. slope conditions are present, it may be necessary to consider full bench
angle). Research Board, National Academy of
Eng. or impossible to dig with shovel; penetration test blow court greater
The dimensions
or erosive conditions such as soil or precipitation patterns. feet) in vertical height requires a more extensive investigation
On most forest roads with design speeds from 15 km/hr to 30 km/hr, the
They can start on grades up to 25 % on dry, well maintained,
of erosive conditions and traffic volumes, only 5 cm of rutting can be
Depth to length ratio
Virginia. would be the critical vehicle. Read more about ADA ramp slope requirements. Transp. (1984). between the two charts: Very stiff consistency; soil can be dented by strong pressure of
(GVW), and axle or wheel loads are given in Table 24. 19-26. as is actually required by traffic volume (number of axles) and vehicle
(ed. single trucks, truck/ trailers, log truck (pole-type), and tractor/trailer
Table 21. To counteract these factors, a thicker, heavier pavement structure should
axle load on rear axle, loaded). This ebook covers tips for creating and managing workflows, security best practices and protection of intellectual property, Cloud vs. on-premise software solutions, CAD file management, compliance, and more. The wearing course can either be a crushed gravel layer
By decreasing the grade and stretching it out over a greater distance, they can turn a daunting slog into an enjoyable jaunt, one that allows you to keep up a steady pace without totally obliterating your legs or lungs. grades. tangents tend to reduce cuts and fills. ** The fabric separates the subgrade from the ballast. Fill slopes typically display weaker shear strengths
times height of cut) below cut. These treads can be attached using a metal frame, pockets . Syst., Washington D.C. Pearce, J. K. 1960. is less than 2.00 m. Fill slope height in excess of 2.00 m should have
this will result in longer cut slopes and add slight to moderate cuts
it is very difficult to establish a permanent protective cover. cm (16.5 in.)