The protolith for quartzite is quartz, and because quartz is stable under high pressure and high temperatures, metamorphism of this rock simply causes the reorganization of its crystals. Foliated metamorphic rocks exhibit layers or stripes caused by the elongation and alignment of minerals in the rock as it undergoes metamorphism. Foliated metamorphic rocks are named for their style of foliation. The rock in Figure 10.10 had a quartz-rich conglomerate as a parent rock. HyperPhysics*****Geophysics: Minerals are homogeneous, naturally occurring inorganic solids. In some cases, hornfels has visible crystals of minerals like biotite or andalusite. . If a foliation does not match the observed plunge of a fold, it is likely associated with a different deformation event.
[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Migmatite_in_Geopark_on_Albertov.JPG] An example of contact metamorphism, where magma changes the type of rock over time, Metamorphism of slate, but under greater heat and pressure thane slate, Often derived from metamorphism of claystone or shale; metamorphosed under more heat and pressure than phyllite, Metamorphism of various different rocks. Our goal is to make science relevant and fun for everyone. Quartzite is composed of quartz sand grains. Labels may be used only once.
Metaconglomeraat - Metaconglomerate - abcdef.wiki Mineral collections and instructive books are also available. Some types of metamorphic rocks, such as quartzite and marble, which also form in directed-pressure situations, do not necessarily exhibit foliation because their minerals (quartz and calcite respectively) do not tend to show alignment (see Figure 7.12). Geologic unit mapped in Maryland: Silvery-gray, well foliated, micaceous quartz-pebble metaconglomerate and quartzite; apparent maximum thickness 700 feet. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, Chapter 17: Humans' Relationship to Earth Processes, Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition, Next: 6.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
6.4 Types of Metamorphism and Where They Occur Silvery-gray, well foliated, micaceous quartz-pebble metaconglomerate and quartzite; apparent maximum thickness 700 feet. Related questions What are some example names of foliated and un-foliated rocks? It forms from sediments deposited in marine environments where organisms such as diatoms (single-celled algae that secrete a hard shell composed of silicon dioxide) are abundant in the water. What is surprising is that anyone has seen it! This is because mariposite is an ore of gold. Los Angeles Community College District: What Is a Foliated Metamorphic Rock? Image copyright iStockPhoto / RobertKacpura. Foliation https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Foliation_(geology)&oldid=1134898332, the mineralogy of the folia; this can provide information on the conditions of formation, whether it is planar, undulose, vague or well developed, its orientation in space, as strike and dip, or dip and dip direction, its relationship to other foliations, to bedding and any folding. Phyllitic foliation is composed of platy minerals that are slightly larger than those found in slaty cleavage, but generally are still too small to see with the unaided eye. The cement matrix of conglomerate is not as durable as the grains, and hence when broken, conglomerate breaks around the grains. As already noted, the nature of the parent rock controls the types of metamorphic rocks that can form from it under differing metamorphic conditions. The layers form parallel to the direction of the shear, or perpendicular to the direction of higher pressure. Following such a methodology allows eventual correlations in style, metamorphic grade, and intensity throughout a region, relationship to faults, shears, structures and mineral assemblages. The force of the collision causes rocks to be folded, broken, and stacked on each other, so not only is there the squeezing force from the collision, but from the weight of stacked rocks. Metaconglomerate: Non-foliated: Metamorphism of conglomerate: Metamorphic Rock . Rock cleavage is what caused the boulder in Figure 10.8 to split from bedrock in a way that left the flat upper surface upon which the geologist is sitting. Metaconglomerate looks similar to conglomerate, although sometimes the clasts are deformed. It is dominated by quartz, and in many cases, the original quartz grains of the sandstone are welded together with additional silica. At lower pressures and temperatures, dynamic metamorphism will have the effect of breaking and grinding rock, creating cataclastic rocks such as fault breccia (Figure 6.33). This is probably because nonfoliated rocks were exposed to high temperature conditions, but not to high directional pressure conditions. Marble: A non-foliated metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate minerals, most commonly calcite or dolomite. List of Geologically Important Elements and the Periodic Table. Foliated textures show a distinct planar character. Minerals can deform when they are squeezed (Figure 10.6), becoming narrower in one direction and longer in another. Blue rocks are rare, and we bet that it captured your eye. Place the thick arrows in the direction of maximum stress and the thin arrows in the direction of minimum stress.
Metamorphic Rocks | Pictures of Foliated and Non-Foliated Types - Geology Notice the sequence of rocks that from, beginning with slate higher up where pressures and temperatures are lower, and ending in migmatite at the bottom where temperatures are so high that some of the minerals start to melt. Polymict metaconglomeraat, . It is a soft, dense, heat-resistant rock that has a high specific heat capacity. Physical Geology, First University of Saskatchewan Edition by Karla Panchuk is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Protolith Basalt Conglomerate Dolostone Limestone Granite Sandstone Shale Metamorphic rock Amphibolite Gneiss Marble Metaconglomerate Quartzite Slate Basalt-Amphibolite Along with freelancing, she also runs a small farm with her family in Central New York. As already noted, slate is formed from the low-grade metamorphism of shale, and has microscopic clay and mica crystals that have grown perpendicular to the stress. Over all, the photomicrograph shows that the rock is dominated by elongated crystals aligned in bands running from the upper left to the lower right. More technically, foliation is any penetrative planar fabric present in metamorphic rocks. This is illustrated in Figure 7.6, where the parent rock is shale, with bedding as shown. When it forms, the calcite crystals tend to grow larger, and any sedimentary textures and fossils that might have been present are destroyed.
Platy minerals tend to dominate. On the other hand, any clay present in the original sandstone is likely to be converted to mica during metamorphism, and any such mica is likely to align with the directional pressure. Metaconglomerate: this rock is a metamorphosed conglomerate. Examples of nonfoliated rocks include: hornfels, marble, novaculite, quartzite, and skarn. [1], Foliated metaconglomerate is created under the same metamorphic conditions that produce slate or phyllite, but with the parent rock (protolith) being conglomerate, rather than clay. The parent rock that undergoes metamorphism is called the protolith. Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks, Chapter 13. Not only is the mineral composition differentit is quartz, not micabut the crystals are not aligned. Hornfels is another non-foliated metamorphic rock that normally forms during contact metamorphism of fine-grained rocks like mudstone or volcanic rock (Figure 7.13). Squeezing and heating alone (as shown in Figure 7.5) and squeezing, heating, and formation of new minerals (as shown in Figure 7.6) can contribute to foliation, but most foliation develops when new minerals are forced to grow perpendicular to the direction of greatest stress (Figure 7.6). Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is produced by the metamorphism of sandstone. The classification of metamorphic rocks is based on the minerals that are present and the temperature and pressure at which these minerals form. Most foliation develops when new minerals are forced to grow perpendicular to the direction of greatest stress. It is composed of alternating bands of dark and light minerals. The general term for the property of alignment in metamorphic rock is foliation, of which there are a number of types. Water within the crust is forced to rise in the area close to the source of volcanic heat, drawing in more water from further away. It turns into eclogite at about 35 km depth, and then eventually sinks deep into the mantle, never to be seen again. Q. Slaty cleavage, schistosity, and compositional banding are all examples of ______. Chlorite and serpentine are both hydrated minerals, containing water in the form of OH in their crystal structures. Shatter cones are cone-shaped fractures within the rocks, also the result of a shock wave (Figure 6.32 right). Metamorphic rocks can be foliated, displaying banding or lamellar texture, or non-foliated. Figure 10.24 Metaconglomerate formed through burial metamorphism. The quartz crystal in Figure 6.32 has two sets of these lines. Further identification of non-foliated rocks is dependent on the composition of the minerals or components in the rock. . Rocks that form from regional metamorphism are likely to be foliated because of the strong directional pressure of converging plates.
Geology Ch 7 - Subjecto.com A hard rock that is easy to carve, marble is often used to make floor tiles, columns and sculptures. Non-foliated textures are identified by their lack of planar character. Weathering, Sediment, and Soil, Chapter 10. Click on image to see enlarged photo. Anthracite coal is generally shiny in appearance and breaks with a conchoidal fracture (broken glass also shows this type of fracture). There are two main types of metamorphic rocks: those that are foliated because they have formed in an environment with either directed pressure or shear stress, and those that are not foliated because they have formed in an environment without directed pressure or relatively near the surface with very little pressure at all. Each mineral has a specific chemical composition and a characteristic crystalline structure. Usually, this is the result of some physical force and its effect on the growth of minerals. Generally, the acute intersection angle shows the direction of transport. foliated metamorphic describes the texture of metamorphic rock Related questions What are some example names of foliated and un-foliated rocks? Think of foliated rocks as something that is foiled. [1] The word comes from the Latin folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to the sheet-like planar structure. A second type of nonfoliated metamorphic rock, quartzite, is composed mostly of silicon dioxide. It is a rock of intermediate metamorphic grade between phyllite and gneiss.
ES 1023_2123 Lab 2 - Rock Cycle.pdf - Earth Sciences Texture is divided into two groups.
Metamorphic Rock Specimens - Mineral [1] Each layer can be as thin as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in thickness. Metaconglomerate & Metabreccia > Metaconglomerate and metabreccia are variably metamorphosed conglomerates and breccias that may or may not be foliated. Contrast the rock known commercially as Black Marinace Gold Granite (Figure 6.24)but which is in fact a metaconglomeratewith the metaconglomerate in Figure 6.10. The outcome of metamorphism depends on pressure, temperature, and the abundance of fluid involved, and there are many settings with unique combinations of these factors. Foliated textures show a distinct planar character. For rocks at the surface, the true starting point for the rock cycle would be (a) igneous (b) sedimentary (c) metamorphic. French, B.M. The low-grade metamorphism occurring at these relatively low pressures and temperatures can turn mafic igneous rocks in ocean crust into greenstone (Figure 6.27), a non-foliated metamorphic rock. Territories. . 30 seconds. Crenulation cleavage and oblique foliation are particular types of foliation. Provide reasonable names for the following metamorphic rocks: Physical Geology by Steven Earle is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Foliations, in a regional sense, will tend to curve around rigid, incompressible bodies such as granite. Types of Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
MetRx Study Guide - Foliation c. hydrothermal.
Solved EARTH SCIENCE LAB Metamorphic Sample #1: Identify the | Chegg.com The kinds of rocks that can be expected to form at different metamorphic grades from various parent rocks are listed in Table 7.1. The rock has split from bedrock along this foliation plane, and you can see that other weaknesses are present in the same orientation. The collisions result in the formation of long mountain ranges, like those along the western coast of North America. Examples include the bands in gneiss (gneissic banding), a preferred orientation of planar large mica flakes in schist (schistosity), the preferred orientation of small mica flakes in phyllite (with its planes having a silky sheen, called phylitic luster the Greek word, phyllon, also means "leaf"), the extremely fine grained preferred orientation of clay flakes in slate (called "slaty cleavage"), and the layers of flattened, smeared, pancake-like clasts in metaconglomerate.[1]. The stress that produced this pattern was greatest in the direction indicated by the black arrows, at a right angle to the orientation of the minerals. Chapter 2. The planar fabric of a foliation typically forms at right angles to the maximum principal stress direction. Burial metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deeply enough that the heat and pressure cause minerals to begin to recrystallize and new minerals to grow, but does not leave the rock with a foliated appearance. 2. Phyllite Rock Type: Metamorphic - A low to intermediate grade metamorphic rock produced from the metamorphism of shale. If you have never seen or even heard of blueschist, that not surprising. Notice: Unless otherwise noted, all images and graphics contained within are the property of Richard Harwood and may only be reproduced with permission from the author. Usually, this represents the protolith chemistry, which forms distinct mineral assemblages. Metaconglomerate is a rock type which originated from conglomerate after undergoing metamorphism.
6.2 Foliation and Rock Cleavage - Principles of Earth Science Massive (non-foliated) structure. Non . This eventually creates a convective system where cold seawater is drawn into the crust, heated to 200 C to 300 C as it passes through the crust, and then released again onto the seafloor near the ridge. is another name for thermal metamorphism. Dynamic metamorphism is the result of very high shear stress, such as occurs along fault zones. In this simplified treatment, we'll focus on observational features, rather than interpretations of origin. Thermal metamorphism in the aureole of a granite is also unlikely to result in the growth of mica in a foliation, although the growth of new minerals may overprint existing foliation(s). Labels may be used only once. Granite may form foliation due to frictional drag on viscous magma by the wall rocks. [1] It is caused by shearing forces (pressures pushing different sections of the rock in different directions), or differential pressure (higher pressure from one direction than in others).
Metamorphic Rocks Study Guide | CK-12 Foundation In the formation of schist, the temperature has been hot enough so that individual mica crystals are visible, and other mineral crystals, such as quartz, feldspar, or garnet may also be visible. Therefore, a simplified system is used based on texture and composition. The Himalaya range is an example of where regional metamorphism is happening because two continents are colliding (Figure 6.25). Want to create or adapt OER like this? The quartz crystals were subjected to the same stress as the mica crystals, but because quartz grows in blocky shapes rather than elongated ones, the crystals could not be aligned in any one direction. takes place at cool temperatures but high pressure. So its parent rock is a conglomerate. Under extreme conditions of heat and pressure, Contact metamorphism of various different rock types. Chapter 6 Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks, Chapter 21 Geological History of Western Canada, Next: 7.3 Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The grains form a mosaic texture. Any type of magma body can lead to contact metamorphism, from a thin dyke to a large stock. When a rock is acted upon by pressure that is not the same in all directions, or by shear stress (forces acting to smear the rock), minerals can become elongated in the direction perpendicular to the main stress. Novaculite is a dense, hard, fine-grained, siliceous rock that breaks with a conchoidal fracture. Introduction to Hydrology and Shorelines, 14a. The Geology.com store offers inexpensive rock collections that can be mailed anywhere in the United States or U.S. 2.1 Electrons, Protons, Neutrons, and Atoms, 4.5 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 5.3 The Products of Weathering and Erosion, 6.3 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 7.5 Contact Metamorphism and Hydrothermal Processes, 9.1 Understanding Earth through Seismology, 10.1 Alfred Wegener the Father of Plate Tectonics, 10.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 10.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 10.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 11.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Damage and Casualties, 15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability, 15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting, 21.2 Western Canada during the Precambrian, Chapter 22 The Origin of Earth and the Solar System, Karla Panchuk, Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 22.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars, Appendix 1 List of Geologically Important elements and the Periodic Table, Chapter 7 Metamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks. Regional metamorphism also takes place in this setting, and because of the extra heat associated with the magmatic activity, the geothermal gradient is typically steeper in these settings (between ~40 and 50 C/km). The large boulder in Figure 10.8 in has strong foliation, oriented nearly horizontally in this view, but it also has bedding still visible as dark and light bands sloping steeply down to the right. One derived from shale may be a muscovite-biotite schist, or just a mica schist, or if there are garnets present it might be mica-garnet schist. In the example shown in Figure 7.8d, the dark bands are largely amphibole while the light-coloured bands are feldspar and quartz. Regional metamorphism refers to large-scale metamorphism, such as what happens to continental crust along convergent tectonic margins (where plates collide). The outcome of prolonged dynamic metamorphism under these conditions is a rock called mylonite, in which crystals have been stretched into thin ribbons (Figure 6.34, right). The specimen shown above is about two inches (five centimeters) across. The rock also has a strong slaty foliation, which is horizontal in this view, and has developed because the rock was being squeezed during metamorphism. Fractional crystallization is the opposite of partial melting. This is distinct from cleavage in minerals because mineral cleavage happens between atoms within a mineral, but rock cleavage happens between minerals. Often, fine observation of foliations on outcrop, hand specimen and on the microscopic scale complements observations on a map or regional scale. Phyllite is a foliated metamorphic rock that is made up mainly of very fine-grained mica. Block-in-matrix structures are observed in these exposures, including a large metaconglomerate block (10s m in diameter) found at . Most of the blueschist that forms in subduction zones continues to be subducted. Massive (non-foliated) structure. In Figure 6.28, notice that the isotherms (lines of equal temperature, dashed lines) plunge deep into the mantle along with the subducting slab, showing that regions of relatively low temperature exist deeper in the mantle. The rock in the upper left of Figure 10.9 is foliated, and the microscopic structure of the same type of foliated rock is shown in the photograph beneath it. Study Tip. In only a few places in the world, the subduction process was interrupted, and partially subducted blueschist returned to the surface.
Cardiff Metaconglomerate (MDcc;4) When metamorphosed ocean crust is later subducted, the chlorite and serpentine are converted into new non-hydrous minerals (e.g., garnet and pyroxene) and the water that is released migrates into the overlying mantle, where it contributes to melting. Observing foliation - "compositional banding", Assess foliation - foliated vs non-foliated, Compare non-foliated (massive) and foliated, (Contact Scott Brande) mailto:soskarb@gmail.com. Typical examples of metamorphic rocks include porphyroblastic schists where large, oblate minerals form an alignment either due to growth or rotation in the groundmass. The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and the type of foliation are slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Figure 7.8). This effect is especially strong if the new minerals grow in platy or elongated shapes. The slatey cleavage typical of slate is due to the preferred orientation of microscopic phyllosilicate crystals. is another name for dynamothermal metamorphism. When extraterrestrial objects hit Earth, the result is a shock wave. Foliation is usually formed by the preferred orientation of minerals within a rock. Slate exhibits slaty foliation, which is also called cleavage. Heat is important in contact metamorphism, but pressure is not a key factor, so contact metamorphism produces non-foliated metamorphic rocks such as hornfels, marble, and quartzite. Most people are surprised to learn that, so we added it to this photo collection as a surprise. The protolith for slate is shale, and sometimes fossils that were present in the original rock can be seen in freshly sheared layers of slate. There is no preferred orientation. Rocks exhibiting foliation include the standard sequence formed by the prograde metamorphism of mudrocks; slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.
Metaconglomerate - Wikipedia The Origin of Earth and the Solar System, Chapter 8. The pattern of aligned crystals that results is called foliation. Introduction to Hydrology and Glaciers, 13a. Rocks that form from regional metamorphism are likely to be foliated because of the strong directional pressure of converging plates. Metamorphic rocks that form under either low-pressure conditions or just confining pressure do not become foliated. The deeper rocks are within the stack, the higher the pressures and temperatures, and the higher the grade of metamorphism that occurs. A rock with visible minerals of mica and with small crystals of andalusite. Preface to the First University of Saskatchewan Edition, Second University of Saskatchewan Edition: Goals, 1.4 We Study Earth Using the Scientific Method, 1.5 Three Big Ideas: Geological Time, Uniformitarianism, and Plate Tectonics, 2.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploded Stars, 3.1 Earth's Layers: Crust, Mantle, and Core, 4.1 Alfred Wegener's Arguments for Plate Tectonics, 4.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 4.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 4.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 8.3 Controls on Weathering Processes and Rates, 8.4 Weathering and Erosion Produce Sediments, 9.2 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, 9.4 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 10.4 Types of Metamorphism and Where They Occur, 10.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, 10.6 Metamorphic Hydrothermal Processes and Metasomatism, 11.2 Materials Produced by Volcanic Eruptions, 11.7 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 12.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Impacts, 15.1 Factors That Control Slope Stability, 15.3 Preventing, Delaying, Monitoring, and Mitigating Mass Wasting, 18.1 If You Can't Grow It, You Have to Mine It, Appendix A. Under these conditions, higher grades of metamorphism can take place closer to surface than is the case in other areas. However, a more complete name of each particular type of foliated metamorphic rock includes the main minerals that the rock comprises, such as biotite-garnet schist rather than just schist. Non-foliated rocks - quartzite, marble, hornfels, greenstone, granulite ; Mineral zones are used to recognize metamorphic facies produced by systematic pressure and temperature changes. Different minerals will form depending on the exact temperature and the nature of the country rock. The zone in the photomicrograph outlined with the red dashed line is different from the rest of the rock. A rock list of types of foliated metamorphic specimens includes gneiss, schist, phyllite and slate. At an oceanic spreading ridge, recently formed oceanic crust of gabbro and basalt is slowly moving away from the plate boundary (Figure 6.26). Drag the appropriate labels to their respective targets. There are two main types of metamorphism: There are two types of textures on metamorphic rocks: Think of foliated rocks as something that is foiled. Introduction to Geology of the Oceans, 17a Introduction to Human Relationships with Earth Processes. At subduction zones, where ocean lithosphere is forced down into the hot mantle, there is a unique combination of relatively low temperatures and very high pressures. Some examples of foliated rocks include. Well foliated to nearly massive quartz monzonite gneiss, generally medium-grained and even textured but locally porphyritic and pegmatitic. The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or intensity of metamorphism and the type of foliation are slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss (Figure 7.8). Whether you need help solving quadratic equations, inspiration for the upcoming science fair or the latest update on a major storm, Sciencing is here to help. The location of the wings depends on the distribution of stress on the rock (Figure 10.10, upper right). The larger size gives the foliation a slighly shiny appearance. If stress from all directions is equal, place all thin arrows. Measurement of the intersection between a fold's axial plane and a surface on the fold will provide the fold plunge. Introduction to Hydrology and Rivers, 11a. Place the thick arrows in the direction of maximum stress and the thin arrows in the direction of minimum stress. Quartzite: Formed by the metamorphism of pure quartz sandstone. Question 14. Some rocks, such as granite, do not change much at the lower metamorphic grades because their minerals are still stable up to several hundred degrees. a. T. Metamorphism at ocean ridges is mainly (a) contact (b) dynamic (c) hydrothermal (d) regional. When describing a foliation it is useful to note. Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually while buried deep below Earth's surface. Names given to rocks that are sold as building materials, especially for countertops, may not reflect the actual rock type. If the original limestone was pure calcite, then the marble will likely be white (as in Figure 7.10), but if it had various impurities, such as clay, silica, or magnesium, the marble could be marbled in appearance. As metamorphic processes go, burial metamorphism takes place at relatively low temperatures (up to ~300 C) and pressures (100s of m depth). If the original rock had bedding (represented by diagonal lines in Figure 10.7, right), foliation may obscure the bedding. Created by unique combinations of minerals and metamorphic conditions, these rocks are classified by their chemical compositions. Samantha Fowler; Rebecca Roush; and James Wise, 1.2 Navigating Scientific Figures and Maps, 2.2 Forming Planets from the Remnants of Exploding Stars, 5.2 Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks, 5.4 Depositional Environments and Sedimentary Basins, 6.4 Types of Metamorphism and Where They Occur, 6.5 Metamorphic Facies and Index Minerals, 6.6 Metamorphic Hydrothermal Processes and Metasomatism, 7.1 Alfred Wegener's Arguments for Plate Tectonics, 7.2 Global Geological Models of the Early 20th Century, 7.3 Geological Renaissance of the Mid-20th Century, 7.4 Plates, Plate Motions, and Plate-Boundary Processes, 8.2 Materials Produced by Volcanic Eruptions, 8.7 Monitoring Volcanoes and Predicting Eruptions, 9.5 Forecasting Earthquakes and Minimizing Impacts, 10a.